HELLO DEAR READERS !!
Hope you all safe in your home 🏡 . Here is my second blog.
So me and my elder brother started a new cultivation .....
yes, rice straw mashroom cultivation...
So it started from 15 rupees wala mashroom seed about 200gm in a bottle ...
I brought 2 then 30 rupees.
And transparent polyethylene of 3 meter .. it costs Around 100 rupees.
And a temperature, humidity meter costs around 130
From Amazon
Then besan about 400gram 200 gram each bed .
So I set 2beds
And it costs around 30+100+60+130 = 320 rupees.
You can put the beds both in indoor or outdoor
All you need is to control the temperature and humidity of that room .
Here is a pdf for preference of rice straw mashroom cultivation.
Abstract The rice-straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) has a distinct flavor,
pleasant taste, and rich protein content. It has low production costs and a cropping
duration of approximately 45 days—making it an effective means for poverty alle-
viation for those farmers who grow it. Farmers in Vietnam, the Philippines, and
Cambodia grow it. Rice straw is one of the most common substrates used for grow-
ing this mushroom. The mushroom can grow well in both outdoor and indoor condi-
tions; however, outdoor cultivation has risks of exposure to rain, wind, and/or high
temperatures, all which reduce yield. The yield of indoor mushroom production is
higher and more stable, as such, indoor growing is preferred. In addition to cultiva-
tion, this chapter also covers straw mushroom characteristics, cultivation principles
and techniques, and rice straw substrate preparation.
Keywords Rice-straw mushroom · Indoor cultivation · Outdoor cultivation
Mushroom is considered an important food to address food and nutrition security
and human health (Ishara et al. 2018; Cuesta and Castro-Rios 2017; Feeney et al.
2014a) and climate change adaptation issues (Gellerman 2018; Langston 2014).
Volvariella volvacea (Fig. 6.1), also known as the straw mushroom or rice-straw
mushroom (RSM), is one species of edible mushroom cultivated throughout East
and Southeast Asia (Sudha et al. 2008).
RSM production adds value to rice production and increases the income of the
poor farmers in developing countries (Imtiaj and Rahman 2008; Shakil et al. 2014;
Zhang et al. 2014).
Among more than 38,000 known mushroom species, such as Agaricus bispo-
rus, Lentinus edodes, Flammulna velutipis, Auricularia polytricha, etc., RSM is
one of the most common mushrooms cultivated (Walde et al. 2006) and ranks
third among important mushrooms due to its delicious taste (Ramkumar et al.
2012; Thiribhuvanamala et al. 2012), as well as its short growing time compared
to other species (Rajapakse 2011). In terms of production, RSM ranks sixth among
edible mushrooms, accounting for about 5–6% of world production (Ahlawat
et al. 2011).
RSM is known as a healthy food (Belewu and Belewu 2005; Feeney et al. 2014b;
USITC 2010). It has high protein, potassium, and phosphorus contents (Ahlawat
and Tewari 2007) while being salt-free and low in alkalinity, fat, and cholesterol.
Mushroom also contains selenium (Solovyev et al. 2018) and niacin (Ahlawat and
Tewari 2007; Eguchi et al. 2015), which are two essential compounds in the immune
system and the thyroid that have a role in cancer prevention (Hobbs 1995). Its fiber
content is important for physiological functions in the gastrointestinal tract (Manzi
et al. 2001). In addition, RSM has significant antimicrobial activity (Chandra and
Chaubey 2017). It also provides good sources of polypeptide, terpene, and steroid
(Shwetha and Sudha 2012) and phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids, phenolic
Fig. 6.1 Volvariella
volvacea (Bull.; Fr.) Singer
is an edible mushroom also
known as the straw
mushroom and, for our
purposes, the rice-straw
mushroom (RSM)
acid, and tannins that contribute to its high antioxidant properties (Hung and Nhi
2012). Other sources of antioxidants in RSM are catalase, superoxide dismutase,
glutathione peroxidase, peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione
reductase (Ramkumar et al. 2012). Table 6.1 summarizes the chemical composi-
tion of RSM.
Due to its many benefits and advantages, mushroom production and consump-
tion have significantly increased in many countries (Vizhanyo and Jozsef 2000;
Bernaś et al. 2006). The top mushroom producers are China, USA, and The
Netherlands, contributing 47%, 11%, and 4%, respectively of the world’s total
mushroom production
Physical Characteristics of RSM
RSM is best adapted in tropical and subtropical regions (Bao et al. 2013) and grows
at relatively high temperatures (Obodai and Odamtten 2012). Its total crop cycle,
under favorable growing conditions, is within 4–5 weeks (Biswas 2014). It belongs
to the Fungi kingdom, Plutaceae family, Agaricales order, Agaricomycetes class,
and Basidiomycota division (Chang 1969, 1974; Rajapakse 2011). RSM has an
umbrella-shaped cap (pileus) ranging from dark grey to brown and a diameter of
8–10 cm. When young, its cap has an egg-like shape and, as it matures, it becomes
cone-like and nearly flat. The stalk (stipe) ranges in color from silky white to brown,
which develops to a brownish gray sack-like cup (volva) (Chang and Miles 2004).
The mycelia, the vegetative parts, comprise of threads and cord-like strands branch-
ing out through the substrate.
When the mycelia come together, the mushroom begins its first stage of develop-
ment called the pinhead stage. It is characterized by tiny clusters in white circular
structures of interwoven thread-like hyphae. This is followed by the button stage in
which buttons encircling the egg-shape structures are covered by a layer of tissue or
a universal veil (volva).
The stalk (stipe), cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae) are seen
inside the button when it is cut lengthwise. Commercially, the button stage is preferred for harvesting because of the mushroom’s high-protein content at this point
(about 25%), best palatability, and longer shelf life. The elongation stage occurs
after the universal veil (volva) ruptures, exposing the stalk and the cap. The last
stage, maturity, is characterized by the fully expanded cap exposing the brownish-
pink gills of its lower surface. At this stage, the spawns (basidiospores) begin to
discharge. Figure 6.2 shows the mushroom lifecycle starting from generation of the
spawns and ending with the formation of the ear .
Environmental and Nutritional Requirements
RSM is considered as one of the easiest mushrooms to cultivate because of its short
production duration (Zikriyani et al. 2018) and advantages of having less fat. As
mentioned, this species grows in warm weather, typically in the tropics and subtrop-
ics. The optimal temperature is from 30 to 35 °C for the RSM’s mycelial growth and
from 28 to 30 °C for its fruiting body production (Le-Duy-Thang 2006). The suit-
able temperature for growing mushrooms is between 25 and 40 °C with the opti-
mum being 35 °C (Fasidi 1996). Relative humidity in the range of from 70% to 90%
is best for RSM growth (Biswas and Layak 2014). The optimal pH is 6.5; anything
higher hampers mycelia growth (Akinyele and Adetuyi 2005). This species grows
well on a number of cellulosic substrates, such as rice straw, wheat straw, sugarcane
bagasse, banana leaves, water hyacinth, etc. RSM production can be intensified with
the development of cutting-edge technologies. It can be grown outdoors or indoors.
Growing practices are described Sect. 6.4. Table 6.2 summarizes the main parame-
ters that enhance RSM growth.
Traditionally, RSM is mostly cultivated outdoors because of the low investment
cost. However, outdoor cultivation has low and unstable productivity due to expo-
sure to changing weather conditions (Reyes 2000). Although controlled indoor
mushroom cultivation requires more investment, it usually results in higher and
more stable yields (Chang 1996). In addition, through environmental control, RSM
can be intensively cultivated, growing from six to eight crops annually. Palitha
(2011) reported that the yield of indoor RSM cultivation can be 2.7 times higher
than that of outdoor practice with the same application of feedstock.
Biological efficiency (BE) is an important parameter used in the mushroom
industry to evaluate the effectiveness of a mushroom strain on different substrates
(Chang et al. 1981; Biswas and Layak 2014; Girmay et al. 2016). It is calculated as
follows:
BE = (FWm/ DWs ) .100%
where:
BE is the biological efficiency
FWm is the total fresh weight (g) of mushroom yield across all flushes, and
DWs is the substrate dry weight (g)
As already mentioned, RSM can be cultivated on several lignocellulose materi-
als; however, RSM productivity is attributed to substrates of the best quality
(Ahlawat et al. 2011).
Table 6.3 shows the biological efficiency of RSM production
on different substrates.
Current Practices for Growing Mushroom
6.4.1 Outdoor RSM Cultivation
The steps for outdoor RSM production (Fig. 6.3), as it is done in Vietnam, are shown
in Fig. 6.4.
6.4.1.1 Rice Straw for Mushroom Growing and Preparation
of the Growing Location
Rice straw intended for growing RSM should be dry, clean, without mold contami-
nation, and should not have been exposed to rain or should not have started rotting
in the field. Rice straw contaminated with molds may have mycelia or spawns with
a white color. To minimize contamination and for best quality, the straw should be
collected right after harvest. The location for growing RSM should be cleaned and
treated with 300–500 kg ha−1
(3–5 kg 100 m−2
) of lime (CaCO3) 3 days before
incubation.
6.4.1.2 Growing Preparation and Maintenance of Planting Spawn
The most commonly used spawn substrate is a mixture of tobacco midrib and saw-
dust. The tobacco midribs are first soaked in clean water overnight. After soaking,
they are washed at least three times, drained, and then chopped into lengths of from
2 to 4 cm. The chopped midribs are boiled for 30 minutes and then drained until the
moisture content reaches around 65%. Next, the midribs are mixed with the saw-
dust. About 350 g of mixed spawn substrate is placed inside a 6- × 12-in. polypro-
pylene (PP) bag. For easier handling, a plastic ring may be placed as a “bottle neck”
on the PP bag. This can be done by pulling out the PP bag end through the poly-
vinylchloride (PVC) ring then folding the pulled-out part outward to make an open .
ing. Next, the folded part is secured by tying with a rubber band. The PVC neck
opening is plugged with a rolled cotton waste then covered with paper secured with
rubber band.
The PP bags containing the spawn substrates are sterilized using an autoclave at
15 psi pressure and 121 °C for 30 min. The sterilized PP bags with the spawn sub-
strates are then transferred to the inoculation room and allowed to cool down.
The sterilized bags are kept inside the laminar flow under a UV tube or inocula-
tion chamber for 20–30 min. Inoculation is done by removing the cotton plug of
each bag, then placing a 1-sq mm pure culture mycelial block on top of the spawn
substrate using a sterilized inoculation needle, then replacing the cotton plug. The
process is repeated until all the bags with substrates have been inoculated.
The inoculated bags are kept in the incubation room at 32 °C temperature for
2 weeks, or until mycelial growth reaches the bottom of each bag. The bags should
always be checked for contamination during the incubation period. The shelf life of
the spawn is about 4 weeks at room temperature. It can also be refrigerated at 4 °C
to prolong storage. The refrigerated spawn should be primed at room temperature
before using in order to activate spawn growth.
6.4.1.3 Preparation of Growing Beds and Spawning
Rice straw or stubble can be used as bedding materials or substrates. These
materials collected from the field must be sun-dried. If bundled substrates are
used as bedding, the straw should be cut into 30-cm long strips to make bundles
10 cm in diameter. The beds can be created manually (Fig. 6.5a) or using a
Fig. 6.5b Bedding using a
wooden frame
wooden frame (Fig. 6.5b). The wooden frame size is 0.3–0.4 m in width,
0.35–0.4 m in height, and 1.5 m in length. Straw should be placed into the frame
and compacted so that the first layer is 10 cm thick; then the spawn is added to
the straw surface. A second layer using similar steps should be done. The two
layers of straw are compressed, and then the frame is removed to have the beds
on the ground for growing RSM.
The bedding materials are soaked in clean water for 12 h to make them soft and
pliable. The soaked substrates are rinsed with clean water to remove the slime, fer-
menting odor, and to reduce acidity. Soaking is a prelude to composting.
In composting, the soaked substrates are piled up then covered with plastic
sheets. The composting period is 14 days and the pile should be turned on the 7th
day to ensure even composting. In some cases, 1% molasses and 5% complete fertil-
izer (14–14-14 NPK) are mixed into the substrate during composting. Agricultural
lime (1%) is also added when the compost pile is turned. Through composting, the
substrates are converted into a rich medium suitable for mushroom growth.
The moisture content of the substrate during bed preparation must be close to
65%. Growing beds are established by piling the bundled substrates into layers. The
spawns are sprinkled thinly over the bundles in each layer. It can also be placed in
thumb-size bands 7 cm from the edge of the bed at a distance of 10 cm between
bands. Sometimes the spawn is covered with newspaper to protect the spawn from
drying and to enhance better mycelial growth. If the substrate were not applied with
molasses and fertilizer during composting, a nutrient solution, containing 10 g of
urea and 30 g of sugar mixed in 4 L of water, is sprinkled over each substrate layer.
The process should be repeated until all layers have been treated. Ideally, the bed
should have three layers and should be from 2.5 to 3 m long.
The growing bed is covered with a polyethylene plastic sheet to maintain the
desired temperature and relative humidity appropriate for mycelial growth. The
optimum temperature for incubation ranges from 30 to 35 °C with a relative humid-
ity ranging from 75 to 85%. The incubation period takes from 10 to 14 days.
Mushroom primordia or pinheads usually appear on the side and surface of the
growing beds 5 days after spawning. Once pinheads are observed, the plastic sheet
cover should be lifted for a while to introduce fresh air. The temperature should be
maintained at 30 to 32 °C to synchronize fruiting body formation during the fruiting
stage. The surroundings of the beds should be watered to help maintain the desired
temperature.
6.4.1.4 Mushroom Growing Care
In the first 3 days after adding spawn to the straw beds, the beds need to be exposed
to the sun to increase the temperature inside, which stimulates mycelial growth.
Then, the beds are covered with a net and dry straw. Some nutritional supplements
or stimulants such as Bioted, HQ, or HVP 301 can be sprayed onto the beds to
enhance better mushroom growth. The beds can be watered and covered with rice
straw to maintain the temperature and humidity as well as to maximize the yield and
quality of RSM production, as indicated in Table 6.2.
6.4.1.5 Harvesting and Processing
The first fruiting flush occurs about 14 days after incubation and continues for about
5 days. After the fruiting flush, water is sprinkled over the bed and covered again
with the plastic sheet to build up the temperature. Within 7–14 days, the next fruit-
ing flush will appear. The succeeding fruiting flushes often consist of larger, but
fewer fruiting bodies than the first flush. Hand picking is the common method of
harvesting and sorting the mushrooms. This guarantees less damage and better qual-
ity. The mushrooms are picked from the growing beds with a rotating motion. The
harvest is sorted based on quality and size. To enhance higher protein content, better
palatability, and longer shelf life, the preferred times for harvesting are during the
button to egg-shaped stages.
6.4.2 Indoor RSM Growing
Indoor mushroom growing requires the same preparation and treatment steps as in
the outdoors. However, the environmental criteria, such as heap temperature
(>70 °C) to sterilize straw, moisture content (60–65%), etc., have to be strictly con-
trolled. Indoor RSM growing uses shelves with two types of bedding, spread
(Fig. 6.6a) and compacted (Fig. 6.6b). The ratio of spawn used is about 200 g m−2.
Fig. 6.6b Compacted
bedding
It is necessary to cover the substrate beds to secure the moisture content for 2–3 days.
Water may be sprinkled upon seeing the fungus grow on most of the beds. Organic
fertilizer, such as chicken manure or cow dung, is added to the substrate at a rate of
about 0.5–1.5 kg m−2
to increase the nutrient uptake by the mushrooms. All materi-
als have to be sterilized before adding them to the substrate.
6.4.3 Case Study of Cost-Benefits for Growing Indoor
and Outdoor Mushroom
We conducted assessments for indoor and outdoor mushroom growing in the
Mekong River Delta (MRD) of Vietnam in 2018 that resulted in the cost-benefit
comparison shown in Table 6.4. For the outdoor practice, total input cost was about
1.28 $US kg−1
of mushroom produced and 1.23 $US m−2
of land used. It comprises
the main component costs of rice straw (40%), labor (23%), chemical inputs (11%),
and the rest for land use, depreciation of net and pump, and watering. On the other
hand, for the indoor practice, the total input cost was 1.37 $US kg−1
of mushroom
produced and 10.79 $US m−2
of.
land used. The indoor practice cost breakdown was depreciation of growing
house and facilities, 44%; rice straw, 31%; labor, 7%; and the rest for use, deprecia-
tion of net, pump, and growing house (for indoor scenario), and watering. Net profit
accounted for 1 kg of mushroom produced was the same for both indoor and out-
door practices at 0.5–0.6 $US kg−1
. Whereas, accounting for a square meter of land
Table 6.4 Comparing cost-benefits between outdoor and indoor RSM growing practices in MRD
used, net profit of the indoor practice was 4.6 $US m−2
about 9 times higher than
that of the outdoor practice. However, RSM is commonly cultivated in rural areas,
near the rice fields to reduce the cost of transporting the rice straw. So, outdoor
mushroom growing is still widely done in Vietnam.
6.5 Pest and Disease Problems
RSM is very sensitive to the environment including temperature, sunlight, water,
oxygen (O2), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Sudden changes in temperature may ham-
per or even stop mushroom growth. Sunlight is needed from the sphere to the egg
stages. With a lack of sunlight, vitamin E will be significantly reduced, vitamin D
will not be available, and melanin pigment (black pigment) will not form in RSM.
Green mold (Verticillium fungicola), orange mold (Neurospora spp.), plaster
mold (Scopulariopsis fimicola), acne mushroom (Selerotium rolfsii), etc. are the
typical diseases that affect RSM. These diseases can be prevented or treated by
using lime water with a 0.5–1% concentration and applied by watering on the
affected area. Gypsum disease can be treated with potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) or acetic acid (40%). If the disease is severe, it can be treated by fungi-
cides, such as Benomyl 0.1%, 7% Zineb, or Validacin (for acne).
6.6 Preservation and Consumption of RSM
RSM can be used and processed into many different products but it is easily dam-
aged during harvesting and primary processing. The selection of appropriate tech-
nology for product storage and processing on a scale that is compatible with
production conditions will promote the cultivation of mushrooms and help stabilize
consumption.
RSM spoils very quickly and can be stored at most for 3 days at temperatures
between 10 and 15 °C or in controlled atmosphere packaging (Jamjumroon et al.
2012) it loses moisture in 4 days, resulting in a 40–50% loss of mushroom weight
when stored under normal ambient temperature. Thus, other methods are used for
longer storage, one of which is dried RSM. However, sun drying often changes the
color and taste of the product. Furthermore, RSM exposed to the sun outdoors is
susceptible to microbial contamination. The drying process takes 24 h at 30 °C. The
drying temperature can start at 40 °C and then gradually increase over 8 h to
45 °C. Raw materials of dried mushrooms can be left or cut in half. If cut in half,
they must be pretreated before drying. Blanching for 3–4 min in hot water or
4–5 min in hot steam helps mushrooms keep their color better during storage. When
RSM is dried at 60 °C for 7 h, the moisture content may reach 5%. Dried mush-
rooms can be stored or pulverized for use in spices. Other methods recommended
for RSM preservation include air-conditioning packaging with storage media .
(Lopez-Briones et al. 1992), drying (Izli and Isik 2014), freezing (Murr and Morris
1975), soaking in saline or acid solution (Cliffe-Byrnes and O’Beirne 2008), and
canning (Vivar-Quintana et al. 1999).
Storage time can be extended for 3–6 months by soaking the mushrooms in
acidic or saline solutions, which help extend shelf life and maintain their color. The
mushrooms are washed in plain water before dipping into the saline solution. The
mushrooms are then put in the containers and covered with the saline solution.
Mushroom preservation through industrial canning technology is used in many
countries around the world. The process of producing canned RSM includes pre-
liminary processing, blanching, stacking, sterilization, cooling, labeling, and pack-
aging. In order to produce canned mushrooms of good quality, it is necessary to
process harvested mushrooms as soon as possible. In case of unavoidable delay,
mushrooms should be stored at 4–5 °C until processed.
However, all the other preservation methods result in inferior mushroom eating
quality compared to that of fresh mushroom, in terms of the original flavor, color,
hardness, and so on. Extending the shelf life of fresh mushroom beyond 3 days is
most important, as illustrated in the case of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. In the
local market, mushrooms are consumed as a fresh vegetable with the price normally
fluctuating from 2 to 4 US$ kg−1
at the first and 15th day of the lunar month. A small
portion of salted or dried RSM is also exported at 2 US$ kg−1
, but is not as much
appreciated as fresh mushrooms. For estimating consumer trends, we can look at the
American market. In 2012, the share of fresh mushrooms was 87% in quantity and
93% in value; the remaining minor portion is processed mushroom, with a farm gate
price of only one half compared to that of fresh mushroom (Phan-Hieu-Hien 2017).
The price of fresh RSM at US supermarkets in 2013 was about 10 $US kg−1
,
while that of salted mushroom was only 5 $US kg−1
(personal communication with
Mr. Le Duy Thang, mushroom expert). From farms in Vietnam to US supermarkets,
fresh RSM needs a minimum of 8 days to “travel”, including 2–3 days through
customs and 2–3 days at supermarkets before reaching consumers. The 8-day shelf
life of fresh mushroom is the greatest constraint to boost mushroom production, or
indirectly to increase the use of rice straw. Luckily after decades of deadlock, some
research results are promising (Dhalsamant et al. 2018). Factors to help ensure a
successful 8-day storage cycle include: (1) a suitable temperature, say 12 °C; (2) a
controlled-atmosphere packaging, which is balanced between oxygen and carbon
dioxide content; and (3) a chemical pretreatment, such as CaCl2. More in-depth
research is needed in parallel with pilot testing for economic performance.
6.7 Summary and Recommendations
Producing RSM is a sustainable option for adding value to rice production and
reducing environmental harm through avoiding the burning of rice straw in the field.
Growing outdoor RSM is a traditional practice with low investment costs but gener-
ates low yield and incurs high risk because it is strongly affected by changes in the weather. On the other hand, growing indoor RSM has higher investment costs but
greater productivity and lower risks due to its well controlled environment.
One of the major bottlenecks for developing RSM is its market. Even though
fresh RSM has high value, it cannot be stored for more than 3 days because it is
highly perishable. Using technology to improve preservation to lengthen the storage
time is a key to increasing the market and price and improving RSM’s value chain.
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